Stockholm, April 1670
A biting wind swept through Gamla Stan, carrying the scent of smoked fish and the rustling of hanging laundry. Rumors from Rome traveled fast, even to the frozen shores of the Baltic: the conclave dragged on, cardinals locked away, at the mercy of intrigues and Providence, to elect Saint Peter's successor. But on that morning, another kind of truth burst forth before the eyes of a curious, Lutheran Stockholm.
On the doors of Tyska kyrkan, the German Church, and along the quays where masts clustered like a petrified forest, crudely printed but rage-filled posters had appeared overnight. They proclaimed a betrayal, not by rival nations, but by the Roman, Spanish, and Portuguese Inquisitions themselves.
The documents, allegedly leaked from Rome's secret archives, accused the Holy Office of political machinations, economic and military betrayals, embezzlement, and gratuitous cruelty.
Extracts from correspondences described how inquisitors, under the guise of piety, had orchestrated the ruin of loyal Catholic families, confiscated their property under false pretexts of heresy, and even manipulated trials to eliminate political rivals, be they nobles or ecclesiastics.
"They betray Catholics through their avarice!" shouted a public crier, "Everything the Inquisition touches, it corrupts and destroys!"
Lists of names were featured: Italian prelates to Flemish merchants, all purged and plundered, their confessions extorted under torture and recorded in cold, implacable Latin.
The proofs, the print claimed, showed that the Holy Inquisition, far from protecting the faith, had become an instrument of power and and wealth, tearing the very fabric of Roman Christianity from within.
Passersby gathered, deciphering the characters with expressions both shocked and triumphant.
Merchants murmured, soldiers swore. The information spread like wildfire through the Swedish capital, exacerbating latent anti-Catholic sentiment and offering an unexpected boon to opponents of papal power.
While, far away, the cardinals in Rome sought a Pope to guide the Church, distant Stockholm exposed to the light the cracks and corruptions that, according to these documents, gnawed at the very heart of the institution. Their secret deliberations, so solemn, seemed trivial in the face of this blazing scandal which, doubtless, would cross the seas and brand the image of Catholicism at the very moment it sought a new face.
Late April 1670
Weeks after the shockwave of the pamphlets, the fervor in Stockholm showed no sign of abating. On the contrary, a new, more contained but palpable tension hung in the icy air.
Echoes of the conclave's perseverance in Rome, which finally seemed to be nearing its end, mingled with persistent whispers about the "Inquisition documents."
This was no longer just the affair of dockworkers and merchants. News of the revelations had crossed borders, carried by the same ships battling the Baltic winds. And on this April morning, in a secret room of the Swedish Royal Chancellery, the atmosphere was electric.
Around a massive oak table, dimly lit by candlelight, emblematic figures from various European confessions had gathered.
Old Count Oxenstierna, representing the Swedish Crown, presided, a subtle smile on his lips. Facing him were the "delegates":
Master Jan Van der Veld, a Calvinist jurist with piercing eyes, sent by the States General of the United Provinces, whose caution masked an insatiable curiosity for any flaw in the Roman edifice.
Baron von Kempten, a rigid Lutheran from Brandenburg, whose presence underscored the interest of the Protestant princes of the Holy Roman Empire. He wielded Latin with the austerity of a theologian and the acuity of a jurist.
And, more unexpectedly and a source of the greatest intrigue, Abbé Dubois, a severe-looking but fervent French Jansenist, and Maître Antoine Laurent, a lawyer from the Parliament of Paris, both discreet supporters of Gallican doctrine. Their presence was a tacit admission that even within the Catholic Church, the Holy See and its methods were not universally revered, especially by those advocating for a more independent national Church from Rome.
The famous original documents, whose very existence was a miracle, were spread out on the table: parchments yellowed by time, tightly written letters in various calligraphies, meticulously entered registers, all sealed and stamped with the marks of the Roman Inquisition.
It was said they had been smuggled out of Venice by a terrified renegade monk, then transported through discreet channels to the Swedish court.
Laurent, spectacles on the tip of his nose, deciphered a coded Latin missive, frowning.
"Here, the seizure of the Bellini family's assets in Florence is ordered, under the pretext of 'heretical sympathies,' while other documents prove their fortune was coveted by His Holiness's Cardinal-Nephew…"
Van der Veld sniffed, nodding.
"A classic method. And here… an arrest warrant for the prelate of Bologna, for daring to dispute the appointment of a close associate of the Inquisitor General. The betrayal is not only against faith, gentlemen, it is also against the hierarchy itself, against justice… against everything these men touch."
Baron von Kempten, lips pursed, pointed to another page.
"These sums… diverted from funds allocated to the poor of Rome. For the construction of a private palace, it seems. Is this the holy mission? They starve the flock to fatten their wolves!"
Abbé Dubois, silent until then, placed a trembling hand on a detailed register of tortures inflicted, often on people whose only "crime" was criticizing the clergy's wealth or Roman absolutism.
"It is not heretics they have broken here," he murmured, his voice hoarse.
"These are sincere Catholics, pious souls, who have been silenced by fear and violence. This is the greatest sacrilege: to defile faith with cruelty."
The air in the room was heavy with the chilling truth they were uncovering.
These documents were not mere propaganda pamphlets. They seemed authentic, detailed, and proved a corruption and hypocrisy that undermined the moral authority of the Inquisition, and by extension, of the Roman Curia.
_______
An Opportunity to Seize
The air in the room was heavy with truths more chilling than the Swedish cold they were discovering.
Count Oxenstierna broke the silence, his subtle smile widening. "Gentlemen," he began in a measured voice, "what we hold in our hands is not merely an insight into Roman practices; it is a weapon."
Master Jan Van der Veld, the Calvinist jurist, looked up, his sharp eyes gleaming with a new light. "A weapon, indeed, Count. These revelations… they surpass anything we could have hoped for. They demonstrate not a mere error in judgment, but systemic malice, a thirst for power and wealth camouflaged beneath the cloak of the holy Inquisition."
He leaned forward, his hands gesturing with contained energy.
"Imagine the impact of this evidence in the United Provinces! Our regents, already wary of Rome, will see it as confirmation of their fears. The Reformed churches will seize upon it to show the true nature of the Beast."
Baron von Kempten, usually so rigid, showed a rare spark in his eyes. "In Brandenburg," he declared in a grave, resolute voice, "and throughout the Holy Roman Empire, these documents will be a cornerstone. Prussia, Saxony, Württemberg… Protestant princes have long sought irrefutable grounds to strengthen their autonomy against papal interference.
These torture registers, these misappropriated funds… This is the proof we needed that Rome is no longer the guardian of faith, but a den of tyrants and usurpers. We must translate them, print them en masse, and disseminate them in every principality, every free city.
Let the people discover the rot gnawing at the Roman Church from within!"
Abbé Dubois and Maître Laurent observed the scene with palpable intensity. While their own interest was to promote the independence of the Church of France, they understood the force of the shockwave the Protestants were about to unleash.
"Speed is essential," Van der Veld resumed.
"The conclave is nearing its end. A new pope, however virtuous he may be, will struggle to sweep such accusations, backed by evidence, under the rug. We must act before they have time to organize their counter-attack."
"Protestant bookselling networks are vast and efficient," added von Kempten, a cold smile on his lips.
"From Leipzig to Amsterdam, from Geneva to Copenhagen, these revelations will be printed, disseminated, read, and commented upon in every vernacular language. We will not content ourselves with pamphlets. We will publish facsimiles of the most damning passages, with commentary to guide public opinion. Let no one doubt their authenticity."
Oxenstierna nodded, satisfied.
"Excellent. Sweden will make its presses and ships available. The Baltic winds will carry this truth far beyond our borders. Rome thought it had stifled these whispers, but thanks to you, gentlemen, these documents will shout their truth across the four corners of Europe."
The determination of those present was palpable. These yellowed parchments would become the spearhead of a new battle, no longer on battlefields, but in the arena of public opinion, threatening to further fracture the already fragile unity of European Christianity.
In Stockholm, the decision was made: the Inquisition documents, damning proof of corruption and cruelty, were to set Europe ablaze. While Swedish, Dutch, Brandenburg, and English presses churned, the echo of the revelations, initially a murmur, spread.
________
The Nordic Explosion
In the Holy Roman Empire, the reaction was immediate and jubilant. Baron von Kempten, beaming, oversaw the publication of thousands of copies.
From Berlin to Dresden, Lutheran pastors preached from their pulpits about Roman abuses, brandishing facsimiles of torture registers. The Protestant princes of Brandenburg, Saxony, and the Palatinate saw it as an opportunity to reassert their independence and divine legitimacy. Local Diets were shaken by motions demanding an even clearer break with all papal influence, to popular acclamations.
In the United Provinces, Master Jan Van der Veld ensured that the ports of Amsterdam and Rotterdam became crossroads for this new truth. The pamphlets, often illustrated with engravings of the described tortures, flooded markets and public squares. The populace, steeped in the history of their struggle against the Spanish Inquisition, saw their worst fears confirmed. Grand Pensionary Johan de Witt, though cautious, could not ignore the popular fervor and the pressure from the States General. He used these revelations as a diplomatic asset, strengthening alliances with England and Sweden, and justifying the continuation of an aggressive anti-Catholic policy. The Reformed faith was celebrated as the bulwark of liberty and justice against "papist tyranny."
________
The Spanish Fissure
But the real surprise came from Spain. Far from a monolithic opposition, a fissure appeared, orchestrated by Don Juan José de Austria. His battle plan, subtle and ruthless, was set in motion.
Selectively chosen copies, emphasizing the misappropriation of funds and the persecution of "sincere" Catholics by corrupt inquisitors from Rome, were "found" in the antechambers of palaces.
In high noble circles, weary of the Regent's favorites and inquisitorial interference, the documents circulated covertly.
Jurists from the Council of Castile and the Council of Aragon, already favorable to regalism (the preeminence of royal power over the Church), saw an opportunity.
They began to murmur about the necessity of "purifying" the Inquisition and subjecting it more closely to the Crown to avoid such "abominations" in Spain.
Within the lower clergy and certain religious orders, voices rose. Monks and priests, genuinely scandalized by the description of tortures inflicted on the faithful, began to preach discreetly about the corruption of institutions rather than the unconditional sanctity of Rome.
Regent Mariana of Austria and Father Nithard were caught off guard.
Accusations from outside were expected, but this internal rebellion, so insidious and well-documented, destabilized them.
Nithard, as Grand Inquisitor, was indirectly targeted.
Protestant pamphlets linked him to Roman corruption, and internal murmurs showed him incapable of protecting the Spanish Inquisition from such a defilement.
The Regent's defenders tried to minimize the facts, crying defamation and heresy, but the echo of the documents was too strong, the proof too tangible.
Don Juan José de Austria, skillfully positioning himself as the defender of pure faith and the dignity of the Spanish Crown, became the standard-bearer of reform.
He did not call for revolt against the King, but against the weakness and corruption of his Regency.
Rumors of his triumphant return to Madrid to "save Spain" from intrigues and abuses began to swell. Spain, though still fervently Catholic, was shaken by a political and religious crisis of unprecedented scale, threatening the established balance of power.
News of the scandal, amplified by Protestant imprecations and the subversive whispers of Juan José de Austria, struck Rome at the heart of the conclave. The external ferment clashed with the inertia and internal tensions of the cardinals, who were still unable to elect a new pope.
_______
The Conclave Under Pressure: An Anti-Inquisition Papabile?
Inside the Sistine Chapel, the atmosphere, already heavy from weeks of fruitless negotiations, became electric. Rumors about the "Swedish documents" and their European dissemination transformed the debates.
The "regalian" cardinals, mostly French (Gallicans) and Spanish (influenced by Juan José's faction and their monarchy's desire for autonomy), found in this crisis an opportunity to strike a major blow.
Their arguments, already honed against papal absolutism, now gained irresistible force.
"Eminences," thundered Cardinal de Bouillon, his voice vibrating, "we can no longer ignore the clamor rising across Europe! These accusations of corruption and cruelty are no longer mere heretical libels; they are supported by evidence whose echo resonates even in Madrid! The Inquisition, as it operates, has become a burden, a stain on the Church's mantle. We must elect a Pontiff who will have the courage to radically reform, or even abolish, this institution! A Pope who will restore the credibility of the Holy Church by purging its abuses and focusing on pastoral care, not terror!"
These regalian cardinals argued that such a Pope, by ridding the Church of the Inquisition, would appease tensions with European monarchies, affirm the sovereignty of kings over their internal affairs, and allow for better conciliation with Protestant princes (or at least, remove one of their main propaganda arguments).
They put forward candidates known for their moderation and pragmatism, figures who could embody this break with the excesses of the Counter-Reformation.
_______
The Zealots' Resistance: The Specter of the Counter-Reformation
Facing them stood the "zealous" cardinals, the most intransigent faction, firmly attached to the legacy of the Counter-Reformation and the inalienable authority of the Holy See.
"Madness! Heresy in disguise!" furiously retorted Cardinal Altieri, supported by many Italians and ultra-montanes. "Abolish the Inquisition? That is to renounce the defense of the Faith! That is to open the door to wolves! These 'documents' are merely instruments of Protestant heresy and monarchical sedition to weaken the Church! The Counter-Reformation allowed us to regain souls, to purify doctrine! To renounce the Inquisition is to capitulate to heresy, it is to abandon centuries of struggle against the devil!"
Their arguments were always the same: the Inquisition was an essential pillar for maintaining orthodoxy, repressing heresies (Protestantism, Jansenism, etc.), and ensuring the unity of Christendom. To touch it was to undermine the very foundations of the Counter-Reformation, to annul the efforts of Catholic reconquest, and to give reason to the Church's enemies. They insisted on the necessity of a firm Pope, who would forcefully reassert pontifical authority and not yield to external pressures.
________
The Conclave's Impasse
The debate was stormy, passionate, and deeply divided. The regalians had a powerful argument: the survival and credibility of the Church in the face of public opprobrium. The zealous had doctrine and tradition on their side, brandishing the specter of heresy and betrayal.
Neither faction managed to gain the two-thirds majority necessary for election. Every candidate proposed by one side was systematically blocked by the other. The conclave remained in an impasse, caught between the need to respond to an unprecedented scandal and the fear of abandoning the foundations of the Counter-Reformation.
Time passed, and each day without a pope reinforced the image of a paralyzed Curia, unable to face the storm. Pressure mounted, both inside and outside the walls of the Eternal City.
______
May 1670: The Election of Clement X
After months of deadlock, under the growing pressure of the document scandal and the regalian factions, an inevitable compromise finally emerged within the conclave. On April 29, 1670, the exhausted cardinals settled on Cardinal Giovanni Battista Altieri. At 80 years old and known for his piety and moderation, he was a transitional choice, a pontiff deemed capable of navigating turbulent waters without upsetting the balance of power. On May 11, he was enthroned as Pope Clement X.
His first major challenge was to address the world and manage the unprecedented crisis that the Inquisition documents had unleashed.
Pope Clement X's Brief Address
A few days after his enthronement, in a measured but solemn address, Clement X spoke to the cardinals and a small circle of prelates gathered. His voice, though weak with age, carried the weight of pontifical authority:
"Venerable Brothers, the burden of the Apostolic Charge, placed upon my frail shoulders, is immense in these troubled times. Ill winds blow upon the Holy Church, bearing slanders and doubts sown by our enemies. Documents, whose content has been distorted and exploited by the fomenters of heresy, have been disseminated, seeking to cast opprobrium upon our holy Inquisition."
"We will never deny that the work of men, however pious in its intention, may know imperfections. Individuals, driven by misguided zeal or earthly passions, may, alas, have strayed from the precepts of Charity and Justice that Our Lord taught us. These individual excesses, which we condemn with the utmost firmness, must in no way tarnish the divine mission and vital necessity of the Holy Office for the protection of the Faith and the salvation of immortal souls in the face of heresies that threaten to engulf us."
"To dispel all shadow, so that the light of Truth may shine unhindered and the trust of the faithful may be restored, and not to yield to the clamor of our adversaries, We have resolved to take measures so that the justice of the Inquisition shall henceforth be rendered with exemplary transparency."
_______
The Bull "Custos Fidei": The End of Opacity
A few weeks later, on June 20, 1670, Clement X published the pontifical Bull "Custos Fidei" (Guardian of the Faith), a document which, while reaffirming the authority and indispensable role of the Inquisition, marked a notable shift in its procedures:
Reaffirmation of the Inquisition's Divine Mission: The Bull began by recalling that the Inquisition, instituted by Divine Providence, was an essential bulwark against heresy and a guarantee of orthodoxy. It condemned with the utmost severity the "defamers and fomenters of discord" who had "falsified and maliciously interpreted" certain documents to attack the Church.
Recognition of "Isolated Abuses" and Condemnation: Without ever admitting the complete veracity of the documents disseminated by the Protestants, the Bull acknowledged that, due to "the weakness of human nature," "isolated cases of intemperate zeal or procedural abuses" may have occurred in the past. The Holy Father solemnly condemned them, insisting that they were contrary to the spirit of justice and Christian charity.
"Controlled Publicity" of Inquisitorial Procedures: This was the key point of the Bull. For the future, Clement X ordered that:
The charges would be clearly communicated to the accused.
The names of prosecution witnesses would, as much as possible and without compromising their safety, be communicated to the defense.
The accused would have the right to be assisted by an ecclesiastical lawyer designated and approved by the Holy Office, whose role would be to oversee the procedure and present the defense.
Official summaries of trials and judgments, expurgated of the most sensitive or compromising elements, would be deposited in diocesan archives and made accessible for consultation by designated jurists and prelates, under the authority of the local bishop. These summaries would be official documents, drafted to show the "just application" of canonical law.
Regular canonical visits would be conducted by pontifical legates to all Inquisition tribunals to ensure strict adherence to these new directives and the "purity" of judgments.
Strengthening of Pontifical Control: The Bull reaffirmed that the entire Inquisition fell directly under the authority of the Pope and the Congregation of the Holy Office in Rome, thereby reducing local margins for maneuver and the possibility of uncontrolled deviations by the Curia.
This Bull was a masterstroke. It allowed Rome to present itself as the guarantor of justice and purity, to implicitly admit problems without validating heretical accusations, and to defuse part of the political crisis by offering Catholic monarchies a more "responsible" Inquisition, all while maintaining its fundamental existence and power. The compromise was risky but necessary for the survival and credibility of the Holy See.