---
**What is a Browser? and The New Generation Evolution of Browsers — The "Mini Operating System" Concept**
A browser (Web Browser) is one of the fundamental software tools that enables users to access information on the internet. Its primary function is to read web pages (HTML, CSS, JavaScript), render them, and present them to the user as a graphical interface.
However, in recent years — especially starting from 2016–2017 — browsers have transformed from being simple information-reading tools into fully functional application platforms. After this period, thanks to the development of web technologies (HTML5, WebAssembly, WebRTC, PWA, and similar), browsers have gained capabilities similar to an operating system.
Today, it is possible to run many types of software without installing them separately, using only the browser. Now, functions like those below can be performed entirely through the browser:
| Function | Technology / Example Enabling It |
| ----------------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ |
| 🎨 **Photo editing** | Photopea, Pixlr, Canva (completely web-based design tools) |
| 🎵 **Music production and audio editing** | BandLab, Soundtrap, Amped Studio (music production through the browser) |
| 🎬 **Video editing and montage** | Clipchamp, CapCut Web, VEED.IO |
| 🎤 **Voice recording and editing** | Audio recording is possible with Web Audio API and WebRTC support |
| 📸 **Camera and screen recording** | Real-time camera and screen sharing is possible with WebRTC and MediaRecorder API |
| 📦 **3D modeling and games** | 3D environments can be created inside the browser with WebGL and WebGPU technologies |
---
### **Fundamental Technologies That Made This Evolution Possible:**
| Technology | Description and Role |
| ------------------------------------ | ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
| **HTML5** | Enabled multimedia (video, audio, graphics) to run directly in the browser. |
| **WebAssembly (WASM)** | Allows programs written in C, C++, Rust, and similar languages to run in the browser with high performance. |
| **WebRTC (Real-Time Communication)** | Enables real-time communications such as camera, microphone, and screen sharing. |
| **Service Workers** | Allows web applications to work in offline mode (for example, in PWA applications). |
| **Progressive Web Apps (PWA)** | Creates versions of websites that behave like apps (downloadable, notifications, offline support). |
| **WebGPU / WebGL** | Enables 3D graphics and game engines to run directly inside the browser. |
You can even learn your computer's screen refresh rate through a web browser, and there are special websites available for this purpose.
---
## **Historical Development Stages of Browsers**
**Year, Browser, Description**
* **1990, WorldWideWeb (Nexus),** The first web browser. Created by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN. Later renamed Nexus.
* **1993, Mosaic,** The first browser to display text + images on the same page. Developed by NCSA.
* **1994, Netscape Navigator,** Played a key role in the mass popularization of the internet.
* **1995, Internet Explorer,** "Came bundled with Windows, was the market leader for a long time."
* **2003, Safari,** Apple's browser optimized for Mac.
* **2004, Mozilla Firefox,** "Open-source, secure, fast alternative."
* **2008, Google Chrome,** "Became the leader with speed, simplicity, and automatic updates."
* **2015, Microsoft Edge,** "Started with EdgeHTML, later switched to a Chromium-based version (late 2019)."
* **2019+, Brave, Vivaldi, Arc,** "Chromium-based browsers focused on privacy/customization."
---
## **The Most Commonly Used Browsers Today:**
---
## **1: LibreWolf — A Browser Designed for Security and Privacy**
LibreWolf is an open-source browser developed based on Mozilla Firefox ESR (Extended Support Release),
but it maximizes the principles of user privacy, security, and freedom.
---
## **LibreWolf's Advantages in Terms of Technical Structure and Security:**
| № | **Advantage** | **Technical and Explanatory Version (with terminology)** |
| ------ | ----------------------------------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
| **1** | **100% Open Source** | LibreWolf is completely open source — meaning all of its source code is accessible to everyone through **GitLab**. This guarantees that there is no hidden telemetry (*telemetry → collecting user data in the background*) or tracking mechanism in the browser. |
| **2** | **No Telemetry or Tracking** | Although built on the Mozilla Firefox base, all **telemetry**, **data reporting**, **crash reporter**, and **health report** features have been completely removed. This ensures that user activities are never sent to any server. |
| **3** | **RFP – Resist Fingerprinting** | The **RFP** (Resist Fingerprinting) feature prevents websites from collecting browser and device parameters (screen size, system language, fonts, etc.) to identify the user. As a result, everyone appears as the "same profile," making it difficult to create unique fingerprints. |
| **4** | **FPI – First Party Isolation** | This feature separates cookies and storage data on a per-domain basis. That means **Facebook** or **Google** cannot track users across other websites. It fundamentally solves the "cross-site tracking" problem. |
| **5** | **High Security and Sandboxing** | LibreWolf has active **sandboxing** (isolated environment) and **Fission (site isolation)**. Each web page runs in a separate process — preventing malicious scripts from affecting other pages. This system is equivalent to the **Chrome sandbox** level. |
| **6** | **Privacy-optimized `user.js` configuration** | The browser comes with the **Arkenfox user.js** file by default — containing more than 400 pre-enabled privacy and security settings (e.g., **WebRTC IP leak disabled**, **DNS over HTTPS**, **OCSP stapling**, etc.). |
| **7** | **Built-in Ad and Telemetry Filters** | Powerful blocking filters such as **uBlock Origin** are pre-installed in LibreWolf. Ads, tracking scripts, crypto-mining code, and fingerprinting scripts are automatically blocked. |
| **8** | **Automatic clearing of personal data** | Upon every shutdown, all temporary data such as **cache**, **cookies**, **history**, and **form data** is automatically deleted. This prevents methods such as "persistent cookies" and "local storage tracking." |
| **9** | **DNS and HTTPS Security Mechanisms** | **DNS over HTTPS (DoH)** and **OCSP stapling** are active in LibreWolf — ensuring the encryption of domain queries. This way, ISPs or third parties cannot see which websites the user visits. |
| **10** | **Completely ad-free and non-sponsored interface** | Unlike Firefox, LibreWolf has no **Pocket**, **Sponsored Tiles**, **Discovery Feed**, or other advertisement-based integrations. The interface is clean, fast, and simple. |
| **11** | **Security-focused update model** | The browser uses the **Mozilla ESR (Extended Support Release)** base for each new version, meaning only stable and fully tested releases are used. This prevents experimental or risky features from being included. |
| **12** | **Cross-platform support** | LibreWolf provides full support for **Windows**, **Linux**, and **macOS** systems. Especially on Linux, *AppArmor* and *seccomp* profile integration further increases security. |
| **13** | **Relatively Low Resource Usage and Optimized Performance** | Since all telemetry and background services are disabled, RAM and CPU usage is low. This improves performance especially on *low-end* (low-hardware) systems. |
| **14** | **High Compatibility and Customizable Structure** | Users can fully personalize the browser with `about:config` and `user.js` files — making LibreWolf ideal for both developers and security experts. |
| **15** | **Secure download and official distribution channels** | LibreWolf is distributed only through the **official GitLab repository** and secure package systems such as **Flatpak/Snap** — preventing modified or spyware-infected versions. |
---
## ⚠️ **Relative Weak Points:**
| ❌ Issue | 🧩 Detailed Explanation |
| ------------------------------------------| --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
| **1️ No Sync System** | Firefox's "Mozilla Account" sync functionality is disabled. Good for privacy, but reduces convenience. |
| **2️ Some sites are not fully compatible** | For example, sites such as Google Meet or Microsoft Teams sometimes run with "hard-coded" browser requirements. |
| **3️ Extension store is limited** | Some extensions from Firefox Add-ons (especially those that use telemetry) are blocked by LibreWolf. |
---
## **Mozilla Firefox — one of the most popular and reliable open-source projects in the browser world.**
Developed by the Mozilla Foundation and its subsidiary Mozilla Corporation, Firefox is free and stands out with its privacy, security, and extensive customization options.
Firefox, which comes pre-installed on many Linux distributions, provides strong integration with security testing and pentest tools (for example, Burp Suite).
Firefox offers stable operation, rich graphical rendering, strong privacy protection, and synchronization between devices through Firefox Sync — meaning that when logged in with the same email and password, bookmarks, history, passwords, and other user data are automatically transferred to your new device.
This and many other features make Firefox one of the leading browsers.
---
## **Firefox's core advantages in terms of Technical Structure and Security:**
| № | Technical Advantage | Short Description |
| -- | ---------------------------------- | ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
| 1 | Open-source code | The entire codebase is open (MPL 2.0). Anyone can inspect, modify, and share it. |
| 2 | Quantum Project | Modern architecture: With WebRender, Stylo, and Quantum Flow, it is a fast and low-resource-consuming browser. |
| 3 | WebRender (GPU rendering) | A rendering engine powered by the GPU (graphics card). Provides smooth animations and low CPU usage. |
| 4 | Gecko Engine | The core web engine that runs HTML, CSS, and JavaScript fully according to standards. |
| 5 | Multi-process architecture (e10s) | Each tab and extension runs in a separate process. Reduces freeze and crash risks. |
| 6 | Firefox Sync | Tabs, passwords, history, and extensions are synchronized between devices in encrypted form. |
| 7 | Enhanced Tracking Protection | Blocks ad trackers, crypto miners, and third-party cookies. |
| 8 | Total Cookie Protection (dFPI) | Each site's cookies are kept separate. Cross-site tracking becomes impossible. |
| 9 | WebExtensions API | Provides a secure, standard, and Chrome-compatible programming interface for extensions. |
| 10 | Components written in Rust | WebRender, Stylo (CSS engine), MP4 parser — developed in the Rust language for memory safety and performance. |
| 11 | Stylo (Parallel CSS Engine) | Processes CSS styles in parallel on multi-core processors. Pages load faster. |
| 12 | Fission (Site Isolation) | Each site runs entirely in a separate process. Security and privacy are maximized. |
| 13 | Quantum DOM | Processes the DOM structure of web pages in a multi-process and asynchronous way. |
| 14 | Sandbox Security | Every process runs inside a "sandbox." Malicious code cannot access the system. |
| 15 | HTTPS-Only Mode | All sites open only over encrypted (HTTPS) connections. Prevents data theft. |
| 16 | DNS over HTTPS (DoH) | DNS queries are sent through an encrypted channel. Internet providers cannot track them. |
| 17 | Picture-in-Picture (PiP) | Allows watching videos in a small window outside the browser. |
| 18 | Container Tabs | Keeps tabs for different accounts (work, personal, etc.) in separate "containers." |
| 19 | Manifest V3 support for extensions | Extensions built under the same standard as Chrome. More than 10,000 extensions are available. |
| 20 | Memory Optimization | "Memory Sanitizer" and "Quantum Flow" reduce memory leaks to a minimum. |
| 21 | Firefox Add-ons Store | Featured extensions: uBlock Origin, AdGuard AdBlocker, Dark Reader. Categories: Privacy & Security, Tab Management. Security checks: AMO Review process (code review, permission system); open source, Manifest V2 and V3 support. |
---
Additionally, **Mozilla Thunderbird** is a free and open-source email client developed by the Mozilla Foundation.
This program can connect to Gmail, Yahoo, Outlook, and other email services using IMAP and POP3 protocols.
Thunderbird allows users to read emails offline, manage multiple accounts, filter spam, perform encryption (PGP, S/MIME), and expand functionality through add-ons.
In short, it is a powerful email management program for the desktop.
Furthermore, Firefox's official store provides thousands of themes and add-ons (programs added to the browser) that improve performance. These features make Firefox one of the leading products in the browser world.
However, Firefox can only run on Windows, Linux, and Mac OS X platforms; meaning it cannot be officially run on mobile devices.
---
## ✅ **Complete, Unabridged English Translation (Zero Loss of Content)**
**Google Chrome:**
Google Chrome is a fast, multi-process, Chromium-based web browser developed by Google.
It was first released on September 2, 2008 for Windows, and later made available on macOS, Linux, Android, and iOS platforms.
As of 2025, Chrome is the most widely used browser worldwide (60%+ market share).
However, this browser is heavily criticized by many users globally. The main reason is that its privacy policy is weak for most users.
In addition, Chrome demands more resources such as CPU and RAM compared to all competing browsers. It also does not operate as stably as Firefox; despite this, it uses higher system resources than Firefox.
---
## **Google Chrome Technical Engines and Architecture:**
| **Component** | **Full Description (English Translation)** |
| ------------------------------ | --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
| **Blink (Render Engine)** | The rendering engine that generates the visual output of HTML, CSS, and JavaScript. It is the core part of the Chromium project (developed after being forked from WebKit). |
| **V8 (JavaScript Engine)** | The engine that executes JavaScript code quickly via JIT (Just-In-Time) compilation. Works with Ignition (interpreter) + TurboFan (optimization engine). It does not perform "real-time translation"; it performs compilation and optimization. |
| **Multi-process Architecture** | Each tab and extension runs in a separate process → if one tab crashes, the others remain unaffected. Plugins (NPAPI) are no longer supported (disabled since 2015). Currently, only WebExtensions are used. |
| **Sandboxing** | Each tab is isolated inside a "sandbox." Malicious code cannot penetrate into the system (implemented using Job Objects on Windows, seccomp on Linux, and seatbelt on macOS). |
| **WebAssembly (WASM)** | A low-level binary format that enables high-performance applications (games, video rendering, apps) to run in the browser. Compiled from languages like C, C++, and Rust. |
| **GPU Acceleration** | Graphics tasks (CSS animations, video, WebGL) are offloaded to the GPU → provides smoother and faster performance. |
| **Manifest V3** | The new platform for extensions: improves security and energy efficiency. AdBlock-like tools are limited — DeclarativeNetRequest API allows a maximum of 30,000 rules; dynamic filters are prohibited. However, versions such as uBlock Origin Lite still work. |
---
## **Technical Advantages:**
| № | Feature | Description |
| -- | --------------------------------- | ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
| 1 | **V8 JavaScript Engine** | One of the fastest JS engines in the world; written in C++ by Google. |
| 2 | **Multi-process System** | The browser doesn't freeze because each tab and extension runs in an independent process. |
| 3 | **Sandboxing** | Malicious sites cannot access system files. |
| 4 | **Blink Render Engine** | Chrome's visual processing performance is very fast and accurate. |
| 5 | **WebAssembly Support** | Heavy applications (e.g., AutoCAD Web, Unity Web games) run smoothly in the browser. |
| 6 | **Hardware Acceleration** | Videos and animations are displayed more smoothly via the GPU. |
| 7 | **Chrome Sync (synchronization)** | Passwords, history, tabs, and extensions sync across devices using a Google account. |
| 8 | **Tab Groups and Memory Saver** | Groups tabs and reduces RAM usage. |
| 9 | **Security & Safe Browsing** | Automatically blocks phishing and malicious websites. |
| 10 | **DevTools (Developer Tools)** | One of the most powerful built-in debugging and analysis tools for web developers. |
| 11 | **WebGPU and WebGL 2.0** | Provides high-performance support for 3D and graphics applications. |
| 12 | **Cross-Platform Compatibility** | Offers the same synced experience on Windows, macOS, Linux, Android, and iOS. |
---
## **Weaknesses and Criticisms:**
| № | Problem | Explanation and Impact |
| - | ---------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
| 1 | **High RAM usage** | Consumes a large amount of memory because each tab and process runs separately. |
| 2 | **Privacy issues** | Google collects telemetry and tracking data. Criticized in terms of privacy. |
| 3 | **Manifest V3 restrictions** | Reduces the functionality of ad blockers (AdBlock, uBlock Origin). |
| 4 | **Closed-source code** | Although Chromium is open source, Chrome itself is not fully open. |
| 5 | **Energy consumption** | Causes laptops to drain battery faster. |
| 6 | **Privacy policy** | Chrome Sync synchronizes too much personal data to the Google account. |
| 7 | **Ad-centric design** | Integrated with Google's advertising ecosystem; user interests are secondary. |
---
## **Extensions and Store**
Chrome Web Store offers more than 350,000 extensions (add-ons) and thousands of themes.
Google Chrome also supports Windows, Linux, Mac OS X, and Android.
**Brave:**
Brave Browser is an open-source, Chromium-based web browser, but without ads and without trackers.
The main purpose of Brave is to protect user privacy, increase speed, and share advertising revenue with the user.
In short, Brave is not only a browser — it is also an ecosystem that combines blockchain technology and crypto economics (Basic Attention Token — BAT).
---
## **Technical Architecture**
| Component | Description |
| ------------------------------- | ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
| **Chromium Base** | Brave is built on Google Chrome's open-source Chromium platform. |
| **Blink Engine** | Performs the visual interpretation of HTML, CSS, and JS (same engine as Chrome). |
| **V8 JavaScript Engine** | Executes JS code with high performance using JIT technology. |
| **Brave Core** | Brave-specific additional security and privacy modules: Shields, Rewards, Wallet, etc. |
| **BAT (Basic Attention Token)** | The blockchain-based reward token of the advertising system (ERC-20, built on Ethereum). |
| **Brave Sync v2** | Encrypted peer-to-peer (P2P) synchronization — does not require a Google account. |
| **Brave Shields** | Advanced ad and tracker blocking system. |
| **Tor Integration** | Built-in Tor windows — complete anonymization of IP and activities. |
---
## **Technical Advantages**
| № | Feature | Technical Description (English Translation) |
| -- | -------------------------------------------------------------- | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
| 1 | **Ad & Tracker Blocking** | All ads and trackers are automatically blocked using the Brave Shields module. |
| 2 | **Tor Private Window** | Built-in Tor browser window — hides your IP address, provides completely anonymous browsing. |
| 3 | **BAT Reward System** | It is possible to earn Basic Attention Token (BAT) by viewing ads. |
| 4 | **Crypto Wallet** | Stores assets like Ethereum, Solana, Bitcoin; an alternative to MetaMask. |
| 5 | **HTTPS Everywhere** | All sites are forced to load through HTTPS — security is increased. |
| 6 | **Fingerprint Randomization (Browser fingerprint protection)** | Browser identity is kept variable, making tracking impossible. |
| 7 | **Web3 Support** | Provides direct integration with DApps (decentralized applications) and NFTs. |
| 8 | **Brave Search** | An independent search engine that does not track users and is an alternative to Google. |
| 9 | **Brave Talk** | Serverless, encrypted video calling service (based on Jitsi). |
| 10 | **Brave Leo (AI Assistant)** | AI assistant integrated with OpenAI and Brave's own AI model. |
| 11 | **Sync v2 (Peer-to-peer)** | Synchronization is performed P2P (decentralized), without a Google account. |
| 12 | **Energy Efficiency** | Uses 30–40% less RAM and energy compared to Chrome. |
| 13 | **Cross-Platform Compatibility** | Stable performance on Windows, macOS, Linux, Android, and iOS. |
| 14 | **Private Ads System** | Ads are processed within the device, not sent to the server (local analysis). |
| 15 | **Built-in Script Blocking** | Malicious scripts (cryptominers, pop-ups) are blocked. |
---
## **Relative Weak Points and Limitations**
| № | Weak Point | Description |
| - | ----------------------------------------- | ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
| 1 | **Some sites load incorrectly** | The very strict "Shields" filter blocks some site functions. |
| 2 | **Extension incompatibility** | Although all Chrome extensions work, some are not fully compatible with Brave's APIs. |
| 3 | **Ad revenue system is not fully stable** | BAT payments are limited depending on the region. |
| 4 | **Synchronization sometimes slow** | Because P2P is used instead of Google servers, delays can occur. |
| 5 | **Tor mode not as stable as Chrome** | The Tor integration is a simplified version, not at full Tor Browser level. |
| 6 | **AI and Brave Leo region-limited** | AI features are disabled in some countries. |
| 7 | **Limited data transfer** | Does not offer broad synchronization capabilities like Firefox. |
| 8 | **Closed BAT servers** | Some servers for the BAT reward system are controlled by Brave (not fully decentralized). |
---
Brave supports many Chrome Web Store extensions because it is Chromium-based.
Additionally, Brave can be used on Windows, Mac OS X, Linux, Android, and iOS platforms.
Furthermore, here is brief information about Chromium-based browsers:
---
### **Vivaldi:**
| **Feature** | **Accurate Information** |
| ------------------------- | ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
| **Name and slogan** | **Vivaldi** – "Customizable professional browser" *(a description adopted by users; official slogan: "A browser for our friends")* |
| **Founder** | **Jon Stephenson von Tetzchner** – co-founder and former CEO of *Opera Software* (1995–2011) |
| **Founding company** | **Vivaldi Technologies AS** *(founded in 2013)* |
| **First stable release** | **April 27, 2016** – *Vivaldi 1.0* |
| **Engine** | **Blink (render)** + **V8 (JavaScript)** – *Chromium-based (Google modules removed, custom UI added)* |
| **Programming languages** | **C++** (core, performance), **JavaScript** (*React.js-based UI*), **CSS**, **TypeScript**, **HTML** |
| **Main platforms** | **Windows**, **macOS**, **Linux**, **Android** *(no iOS version)* |
| **Open source?** | **Partially** – *Chromium core is open source, but the Vivaldi UI and special features are closed source* |
---
### **Technical and functional features:**
| Feature | Description |
| ------------------------------ | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ |
| 🎨 **Interface Customization** | Tab position (top, bottom, side), color palette, fonts, and shortcuts can be fully customized. |
| 🧩 **Built-in Modules** | Includes an integrated email client (**Vivaldi Mail**), an RSS reader, and a calendar (**Calendar**) within the browser. |
| 🔒 **Security and Privacy** | Built-in tracker and ad blocking. Minimal dependence on Google services. |
| ⚙️ **Tab Management** | Advanced tab handling such as tab stacking, split-view screen, and tab grouping. |
| 💻 **Resource Usage** | Although Chromium-based, extensive features can lead to relatively high RAM usage on some systems. |
| ☁️ **Synchronization** | Passwords, history, tabs, and settings are synced across devices with a Vivaldi account using encrypted synchronization. |
---
## **OPERA:**
Opera – developed in 1995 by the Norway-based company Opera Software ASA.
Initial engine: **Presto (1995–2013).**
Since 2013: **Blink (Chromium-based).**
Since 2016: under the control of the China-based company **Opera Limited**.
Platforms: **Windows, macOS, Linux, Android, iOS.**
---
## **Technical and functional features:**
| **Feature** | **Full Description**
| ---------------------------------------- | --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
| **🔒 Built-in VPN** | Opera provides an encrypted tunnel (VPN) through its own servers – AES-256 encryption, IP masking, 15+ virtual locations (Europe, America, Asia). The free VPN is enabled by default; VPN Pro (premium) is faster and offers 100+ locations.
| **🧱 Ad Blocker and Tracker Protection** | Built-in ad and tracker blocker – based on EasyList/EasyPrivacy and includes crypto-mining and pop-up blocking. No additional extension is needed – enabled via Settings → Privacy & Security.
| **🎮 Opera GX (Gaming version)** | Special browser for gamers – RAM and CPU limiters (GX Control Panel), RGB themes, game news panel (integration with Twitch, Discord, Steam), Aria AI (for game strategies).
| **📱 Flow Feature** | Encrypted end-to-end sharing of files, links, notes, and images between mobile Opera (or Opera Mini) and desktop Opera – with My Flow offering personal storage space.
| **💬 Side Panel (Sidebar)** | Apps such as WhatsApp, Telegram, Facebook Messenger, VK, Discord, Slack, Bluesky can run directly inside the browser – they can be pinned and show notifications.
| **⚡ Turbo Mode** | Speeds up loading on slow internet connections by compressing pages – mainly active in Opera Mini; in standard Opera it has been replaced with Data Saving mode (still available in Settings).
---
## **Microsoft Edge:**
| **Information** | **Technical Description** |
| --------------------- | --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
| **Developer / Owner** | Microsoft Corporation – Microsoft Edge is developed and maintained by Microsoft Corporation (as of 2025, this remains the case). |
| **First release** | 2015 (EdgeHTML-based). Chromium-based since 2020 – First release: July 29, 2015 (with Windows 10, using the EdgeHTML engine). Chromium transition: January 2020 (stable release, using the Blink engine). |
| **Engine** | Blink (render engine) + V8 (JavaScript engine) – Chromium-based (since 2020). |
| **Platforms** | Windows (10/11), macOS, Linux (Ubuntu, Debian, etc.), Android, iOS – full support across all platforms (as of 2025, last two iOS versions). |
---
## **Technical and functional features:**
| **Feature** | **Description** |
| ---------------------------------- | ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
| 🧠 **Microsoft Copilot / Bing AI** | AI assistant integrated directly into the browser (similar to ChatGPT). |
| 💾 **Resource Efficiency** | "Sleeping Tabs" and "Efficiency Mode" reduce RAM and CPU usage of open tabs. |
| 🔐 **Security** | SmartScreen Filter, sandbox mode, HTTPS-only mode, and a built-in password manager. |
| ☁️ **Sync via Microsoft Account** | Passwords, tabs, history, and extensions sync across devices. |
| 🧩 **Extension Compatibility** | All extensions from the Chrome Web Store work flawlessly on Edge. |
| 💼 **Enterprise Management** | Manageable with "Group Policy" and Azure AD integration for corporate environments. |
---
Additionally, since browsers like **Vivaldi, Opera, and Edge** are Chromium-based, most extensions from the **Chrome Web Store** can run smoothly on **Vivaldi, Opera, and Edge**.
---
# **Most Common Terms in the Computer World and Their Detailed Explanations:**
---
## **What Is Portable?**
### **Portable at the Software Level:**
Portable programs are applications that can run without being installed on a computer and store all necessary files and configurations within their own folder.
Additionally, many computer games can also be made portable by moving all system files and configurations stored in their main folder to a USB Flash Drive, Portable SSD, HDD connected through a special converter adapter to a USB port, NVMe, SATA SSD, SD Card, Micro SD Card, or optical DVD devices.
(For example: Moving the main folder — located inside the Program Files directory in the C drive on a Windows 10 operating system — of any game that contains all required files and configurations to any external storage device.)
Some operating systems can also run in portable mode through storage devices such as USB Flash Drives without installing them on an internal HDD or SSD by using Live CD mode (running live).
Examples: Linux Mint, Lubuntu, Kali Linux Live Boot version, Bliss OS, Windows To Go.
This allows you to run the relevant software directly when you switch to a new device or use another computer, without downloading the setup file from the internet or going through an installation process (as long as the operating system platform is the same).
---
### **Additional Advantages:**
• Easy transfer of programs and games from one device to another.
• Minimal (or no) modification to the system registry.
• Ideal for testing and for security purposes (sandbox or isolated environment).
• Easy to preserve the same program configuration across different devices.
• Saves time since there is no installation phase and places less load on system resources.
---
### **Relative Limitations:**
• Some programs may not offer full functionality when run from an external device. (Not valid for all portable programs.)
• Issues may occur in portable mode when system libraries or special drivers are required. (But not valid for most portable programs.)
• Performance may decrease slightly in high-performance applications. (This difference may be minimally noticeable in some games and programs, but in most cases the user cannot notice it.)
---
## **Portable at the Hardware Level:**
In general, many internal storage devices — such as HDD, SATA SSD, NVMe SSD, M.2 SATA SSD — can be made portable using converter tools.
---
# **What Is Virtualization?**
**Virtualization** — is the technology that allows one or more operating systems to run through software capable of virtualization such as VMWare, VirtualBox, Qemu, Hyper-V on an operating system running on a physical computer.
To run an operating system on a virtual machine, a portion of resources from the physical system (CPU, RAM, HDD/SSD, GPU, Network, etc.) is virtually allocated to the virtual machine to run that operating system.
Simply put: An ecosystem that can run one or more operating systems inside a host operating system.
---
## **Advantages of Virtualization:**
• Ability to run multiple operating systems on a physical device (if the computer has enough resources).
• Testing certain viruses and observing what changes the virus makes on the device (mostly done by cybersecurity experts).
• If a software is not supported on your main operating system, you can install on the virtual machine an operating system that supports that software and run it there.
• Ability to run the required software on a specific operating system on a server 24/7.
Additionally, it is important to know whether the computer's CPU supports virtualization technology to perform these tasks.
This setting must also be enabled through the BIOS/UEFI.
---
# **Popular Virtualization Software:**
| Program | Type | Features |
| ---------------------- | ------------------- | ------------------------------------------------ |
| **VirtualBox** | Hosted | Multi-functional, free, large user base |
| **VMware Workstation** | Hosted | The most stable personal virtual machine program |
| **QEMU/KVM** | Bare-Metal level | The most powerful hypervisor for Linux |
| **Proxmox VE** | Bare-Metal | Full virtualization system for servers |
| **Hyper-V** | Bare-Metal + Hosted | Microsoft's hypervisor solution |
---
# **What Is an Emulator and What Is the Difference Between an Emulator and a Virtual Machine?**
An **emulator** is software that mimics the behavior of a system (hardware + software architecture) in a way that closely resembles the real device, allowing it to run on another operating system.
The most fundamental difference of an emulator is that it does **not** require separate virtualization or installation of the operating system running on that device.
This is because an emulator contains within itself both the virtualization required to mimic the device **and** the operating system that runs on it.
Emulators are commonly used to emulate Android and iOS devices.
Additionally, there are separate emulators used to emulate PlayStation and similar devices.
Some examples of Android emulators include:
* BlueStacks
* KoPlayer
* LDPlayer
* MEmu Play
* NoxPlayer
Moreover, many of these emulators support **Pie-64** and **Nougat 32-bit** architectures.
This allows both old and new applications to run smoothly.
---
# **What Is x64?**
**x64 (64-bit)** is the name of an architecture used for CPUs. CPUs with this architecture were first produced by AMD in **2003**, and implemented by Intel in **2004** in Intel Xeon CPUs.
The x64 architecture was developed as a continuation of the 32-bit (x86) architecture, and thanks to 64-bit CPUs, it provides more computing power, higher RAM support, and faster operation.
Additionally, most actively used computers worldwide run on x64 (64-bit) architecture CPUs.
---
## **Main advantages of CPUs with x64 architecture:**
* 64-bit CPUs have much higher data processing power compared to 32-bit CPUs.
* **More RAM support** — 32-bit CPUs are limited to a maximum of **4 GB RAM**.
This means that if you install a 32-bit operating system on a device with a 64-bit CPU, the computer will boot normally and perform many functions, but due to the 4 GB RAM limit, it will not recognize or actively use more than 4 GB of RAM, even if your RAM modules exceed 4 GB.
* Theoretical maximum RAM support for 64-bit CPUs is **16 exabytes** (16,000,000,000 GB).
This allows servers, workstations, and supercomputers to use thousands of gigabytes of RAM.
However, in the real world, for a normal computer, these limits depend on the CPU architecture and the motherboard's maximum RAM support.
* 64-bit systems can run both **32-bit and 64-bit applications and operating systems**, whereas 32-bit systems can run **only 32-bit** applications and operating systems.
(We can explain this as follows: You can fit a 32-square-meter object into a 64-square-meter space, but you cannot fit a 64-square-meter object into a 32-square-meter space.)
In short, this gives you the ability to run both old-generation and new-generation applications and operating systems on your computer.
---
# **What Is a Terminal?**
A **terminal** is an interface between the computer's operating system and the user; it is an environment where commands are entered through the command line (Command Line Interface, CLI).
The terminal comes pre-installed and can be run on many operating systems, such as Windows, macOS, and many Linux distributions.
Through a terminal, you can perform many of the operations you do on a GUI — and even more.
The reason is that the terminal communicates directly with the operating system.
In short: The terminal allows you to execute many commands on the operating system in the shortest way possible.
---
## **What can be done with a terminal in an operating system?**
And some examples:
---
# **Collecting information about the internet network with the terminal**
For example: IP address, MAC address, subnet mask address, IPv4 address, Link-local IPv6 address, and much more.
It is also possible to determine whether the USB WiFi adapter used to provide communication between the computer and the WiFi modem supports monitor mode.
(This feature is especially used in cyber security for test-purpose WiFi attacks, analysis, and cracking WiFi passwords.)
---
# **Repairing corrupted system files with the terminal**
**sfc /scannow** — Detects and repairs corrupted system files in Windows.
**chkdsk** — Detects and fixes disk errors (bad sectors, file system errors).
---
# **File and folder system management with the terminal**
Even if the operating system does not open in GUI mode (e.g., during system failure or while installing a new operating system), it is possible to access the storage devices in the computer and:
* view folders
* view files
* copy files
* move files
* delete files
---
# **System management with the terminal**
Using Windows as an example:
**shutdown -s -t X** — Automatically shuts down the computer after X seconds.
Restarting
Logging out
and other management functions are possible through the terminal.
---
# **Performing Task Manager functions through the terminal**
Without opening the GUI:
**tasklist /v** — Displays active processes and running programs.
**taskkill /f /im program.exe** — Force-closes a frozen or unresponsive program.
---
# **Viewing hidden files and folders through the terminal**
Windows CMD:
**dir /a** — Displays all hidden + visible files.
**dir /a:h** — Displays only hidden files.
PowerShell:
**Get-ChildItem -Force**
Note: Deleting hidden system files is very risky and may cause system failure.
---
# **Bypassing the mandatory internet and Microsoft account requirement during Windows installation**
During Windows 11 installation:
Shift + F10 — opens the terminal.
Type **oobe\bypassnro** → the computer restarts → allows installation to continue without internet and a Microsoft account.
(This method currently works, but it may be disabled by Microsoft in the future.)
---
# **Measuring computer hardware performance via the terminal**
Windows CMD:
**winsat prepop** — starts performance tests.
Then in PowerShell:
**Get-CimInstance Win32_WinSat** — provides information about RAM, CPU, Disk, and Graphics performance.
Note: For more accurate results, CMD and PowerShell should be opened with "Run as Administrator."
---
# **Library management for developers via the terminal**
Python example:
**pip install librosa** — installs a library.
**pip uninstall librosa** — removes a library.
**python main.py** — runs a Python program.
And there are countless more operations that can be performed through the terminal.
---
# **Analyzing laptop battery health with the terminal**
**powercfg -energy** — generates a comprehensive report about the battery's energy usage.
Report location:
**C:\WINDOWS\system32\energy-report.html**
After opening this file in a browser, the user can analyze the real battery condition using mathematical calculations.
---
# **Terminal on mobile devices**
On Android:
**Termux** — a terminal environment installed manually.
It can be used for various purposes and has extensive capabilities.
---
# **What Is BIOS?**
**BIOS** stands for **Basic Input Output System**, and it is located on a chip on the motherboard; this chip is usually black or brown in color.
BIOS is the first software that runs when the computer is powered on, and therefore it is considered the "soul" of a computer.
When the computer starts, the BIOS tests whether all components are working properly and checks system compatibility. If everything is fine, shortly afterward you will see the boot screen of the operating system installed on the computer.
BIOS also enables data exchange between components while the computer is booting.
If there is a malfunction in one or more computer parts, the BIOS analyzes this and informs the user.
---
# **What Is UEFI?**
**UEFI** stands for **Unified Extensible Firmware Interface**, and in many modern computer systems, it replaces **Legacy BIOS** (Traditional BIOS). In terms of security and functionality, it is a more advanced version of BIOS.
UEFI performs all the functions that BIOS does — and even more.
UEFI BIOS on modern gaming computers has a richer and more extensive graphical interface.
It is also possible to manage settings and navigate menus using a keyboard + mouse or touchpad.
The BIOS found on older-generation computers, however, allows settings to be managed only with the keyboard and has a text-based menu.
Since most users will encounter UEFI in real life on modern computers, we will continue our explanation using UEFI.
---
# **Core Functions Managed by UEFI**
### **Checking Components During Startup**
When the computer starts, it checks whether components like the CPU, RAM, and storage device are functioning properly.
### **Boot Selection**
It allows choosing which storage device (HDD, SATA SSD, M.2 SATA SSD, NVMe SSD, USB Flash Drive) the operating system will boot from during startup.
### **System Settings**
Through UEFI system settings, it is possible to change the frequency of components such as the CPU and RAM, as well as other basic system parameters.
This allows components to operate at the highest possible frequency.
Additionally, increasing CPU voltage to boost performance is also possible.
### **Secure Boot**
With Secure Boot enabled, malicious software is prevented from running before the operating system loads.
If this setting is active, the system allows only trusted and signed operating systems to be booted.
### **Fan and Cooling Control**
It provides better cooling performance by adjusting the rotation speeds of the CPU and other fans.
### **Wake-on-LAN**
By connecting to the computer over a Wi-Fi router or LAN cable, it allows sending a signal from a phone or tablet over the local network to power on the device or wake it from sleep mode without physically touching it.
### **TPM (Trusted Platform Module)**
The TPM setting enables the Platform Trust Module and supports encryption tools such as BitLocker.
TPM is a physical, hardware-based security chip that improves computer security by storing encryption keys and sensitive data.
**TPM 2.0 is generally enabled for installing the Windows 11 operating system.**
### **Network Boot**
It enables booting the operating system over a network instead of using a storage device (like HDD, SSD, USB Flash Drive).
This method is commonly used by companies and institutions.
Additionally, by connecting a specially configured computer to another via a LAN cable, the operating system can be booted and installed on the other computer through data transfer.
### **Firmware Updates**
Updating BIOS/UEFI is possible without an operating system.
This is done to ensure full compatibility between the system and newly added components.
However, this process should only be performed by experienced users.
Because if a power outage or any problem occurs during the firmware update, it can cause very risky consequences for the device.
### **Temperature Monitoring**
Temperature can be monitored through sensors on the CPU and motherboard.
### **Voltage Monitoring**
The electrical voltages of components such as the CPU, RAM, and PCIe can be monitored.
### **Fan RPM Monitoring**
The RPM (revolutions per minute) of cooling fans connected to the motherboard can be measured.
### **VT-x / AMD-V Technology**
Provides virtualization support on the CPU for virtual machines (e.g., VirtualBox, VMware).
It only enables CPU support; creating the virtual machine is done within the operating system.
### **IOMMU / VT-d**
Enables pass-through support for PCIe devices in virtual machines. For example, a physical PCIe device (network card, graphics card, sound card, etc.) can be assigned directly to the relevant virtual machine, allowing the VM to use the device as if it were managing it natively.
This improves device performance and reduces latency in virtualization environments. For example, with GPU passthrough, the VM can use the graphics card directly with high performance.
---
### **What Is Task Manager?**
Task Manager is a program in the Windows operating system that essentially shows and manages running processes, programs, background services, and the usage of system resources in real time.
Additionally, you can see the CPU, RAM, GPU (Integrated or Dedicated), HDD, SATA SSD, M.2 SSD, NVMe SSD, Network (Internet Network), and NPU usage percentages of the Windows operating system and all programs running on it, background processes, drivers, and in short, all active processes running on the operating system.
In addition, Task Manager can provide extensive information about the hardware (PC components) in the computer, and by pressing **Ctrl + Shift + Esc** together, you can monitor all running processes in Task Manager.
---
### **Basic Information That Task Manager Provides About the CPU:**
The CPU's manufacturer, brand, generation, the performance indicator at the end of the CPU's full model name, whether it supports overclocking, whether it has an integrated graphics module (letters such as K, KF, H, HX, U in Intel CPUs), and the CPU's base frequency.
How much of the CPU resources are being used at that moment (as a percentage), maximum output speed, the number of operations it is performing at that moment, the number of threads, identifiers, and the CPU's total uptime (in days or hours).
Task Manager provides information about the physical properties of the CPU; for example, the number of CPU sockets (how many sockets are available on the motherboard to install CPUs and how many CPUs are physically running in these sockets).
The number of physical cores on the CPU, the number of threads (virtual cores – new thread count), and whether virtualization is enabled can be seen.
L1, L2, L3 cache amounts in KB, MB, or GB. Generally, L3 is in GB and is available only in certain special AMD CPUs.
In the Windows 11 operating system, with broader monitoring, it is possible to separately see the load amount on all physical cores and threads of the CPU.
---
### **Basic Information That Task Manager Provides About RAM:**
Information about the physical RAM on the device.
Total capacity of the RAM in MB, GB, or TB.
Whether it is DDR1, DDR2, DDR3, DDR4, or DDR5.
How much of the RAM is actively being used and how much is compressed.
Available free RAM amount.
Cache pool reserved for disk, and non-cached amount.
The speed of the RAM (in MHz).
Total RAM slot count on the motherboard and how many slots are populated.
The physical form factor of the RAM: **DIMM**, **SODIMM** (DIMM is generally used in desktop computers, while SODIMM is smaller and used in laptops).
How much of the RAM is reserved for hardware (hardware reserved).
---
### **Basic Information That Task Manager Provides About the Storage Device:**
The exact brand and model of the storage device.
Total capacity in GB or TB.
Total formatted area reserved during OS installation.
Whether the storage device is SATA SSD, M.2 SATA SSD, NVMe SSD, or RAID HDD (especially in Windows 11).
Whether it is the main storage device that contains the operating system.
Whether it has disk caching.
The usage percentage of the storage device.
The response time of the storage device (usually in milliseconds for HDDs).
Read and write speed.
---
### **Basic Information That Task Manager Provides About the Internet Network:**
The exact brand and model of the Wi-Fi USB adapter connected to the internet.
The amount of packets sent by the Wi-Fi network (KB/second).
The amount of packets received by the Wi-Fi network (KB/second).
Internet connection type (e.g., Wi-Fi, LAN, etc.).
SSID information (name of the connected network).
DNS network name (e.g., STELFIBER).
Connection standard (e.g., 802.11n).
IPv4 (e.g., 192.168.1.14) and IPv6 address.
Signal strength displayed with a small graphic.
---
### **Information That Task Manager Provides About the Graphics Card:**
The manufacturer and exact brand/model of the graphics card.
How much load is being used in each section of the graphics card: 3D, Copy, Video Encode, Video Decode.
**Dedicated GPU memory usage** displayed with a live graph.
**Shared GPU memory usage** displayed with a live graph.
A live percentage showing how much of the total graphics card power is being used.
The temperature of the graphics card displayed as a percentage.
The VRAM amount of the dedicated graphics card, shared VRAM amount, and total graphics memory.
Driver version, driver installation date, DirectX version, the physical slot the graphics card is installed in, and hardware reserved memory.
---
### **What Is MBR?**
MBR (Master Boot Record) is an information system located in the first sector of a storage device that determines how a computer will boot (start the operating system) and how it will locate the partitions on the hard disk.
The MBR contains the code required for the boot process and the partition table information.
This is the essential data that enables the operating system to start first on a computer.
---
### **History of the MBR**
The MBR (Master Boot Record) was first introduced by IBM in 1983 with PC DOS 2.0.
This technology contains information about the storage device's partitions and the code that initiates the boot process.
The MBR is an older disk partitioning system and has been in use since 1983.
At the beginning of the disk, in sector 0, the MBR information is located; here, the number of partitions on the disk, their sizes, and their locations are recorded.
At the same time, a small program (bootloader) is stored here, and this program manages how the system will be loaded. This program enables the operating system to transition into the second stage.
Most computer users recognize this term when installing an operating system or preparing a bootable USB, often through a program called **Rufus**, which writes the ISO file of an operating system to a USB drive.
---
### **Sector 0 at the Beginning of the Disk**
In the very beginning of the disk, in the part known as sector 0, the following information is stored:
* A small program that determines how the disk will be loaded (Bootloader)
* A table indicating how many partitions exist on the disk
* The size and location of each partition
---
### **Structure of MBR Sector 0**
MBR sector 0 has a structure of **512 bytes**.
| Structure | Size | Function |
| --------------- | --------- | ------------------------------------------ |
| Bootloader Code | 446 bytes | Code that loads the beginning of the OS |
| Partition Table | 64 bytes | Information for up to 4 primary partitions |
| Boot Signature | 2 bytes | The 0x55AA signature |
---
### **Limitations:**
* Maximum disk size: **2 TB**
* Maximum number of partitions: **4 Primary**
* No boot security
* If damaged, the disk may fail to boot entirely (because the initial sector is unique)
---
### **What Is GPT?**
GPT (GUID Partition Table) is a much more modern and secure disk partitioning system that works together with UEFI.
Unlike MBR, a GPT disk stores important data not in just one location but in multiple locations. For this reason, the risk of corruption is much lower, it is more secure, and it supports much larger storage capacities.
A GPT disk consists of the following structure:
| GPT Structure | Function |
| ---------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |
| **Protective MBR** | Makes the disk appear "full" to older systems for protection |
| **Primary GPT Header** | Main disk metadata (location, number, and structure of partitions) |
| **Partition Entries** | GUID, type, attributes, and unique 128-bit identifier for each partition |
| **Backup GPT Header** | Backup copy located at the end of the disk — provides redundancy |
---
### **Advantages:**
* Maximum disk size: **9.4 ZB (Zettabyte)**
* Up to **128 partitions** (standard on Windows)
* Redundant structure for corruption protection
* **CRC32** verification — detects corrupted data
* Excellent compatibility with UEFI
* Supports Secure Boot and modern boot mechanisms
---
### **Full Comparison Table Between MBR and GPT**
| Feature | **MBR** | **GPT** |
| ----------------------- | ------------------------ | ------------------------------------------------------- |
| Release year | 1983 | 2006 |
| Technology generation | Legacy (Legacy BIOS) | Modern (UEFI) |
| Maximum disk size | **2 TB** | **9.4 ZB** (practically unlimited) |
| Maximum partition count | 4 Primary | 128 partitions (Windows), more are also possible |
| Boot mechanism | Legacy BIOS | UEFI |
| Boot security | None | Yes (Secure Boot) |
| Copy of disk header | None | Yes (backup GPT header) |
| Corruption risk | Very high | Very low |
| CRC32 verification | No | Yes |
| EFI System Partition | No | Yes |
| Drive identification | 32-bit | 128-bit GUID |
| SSD compatibility | Yes, but old structure | Fully compatible + ideal for NVMe |
| Boot speed | Slower | Faster (thanks to UEFI) |
| OS support | Supported by all systems | Windows 8+, macOS, Linux — broad support |
| Windows boot support | 32-bit and 64-bit | Generally 64-bit, but 32-bit UEFI support also possible |
---
### **When Is MBR Used?**
* Older generation computers (those using Legacy BIOS)
* HDDs and SATA SSDs smaller than 2 TB
* Very old Windows versions (Windows XP, Vista, Windows 7, 8.1, 10)
---
### **When Is GPT Used?**
* Windows 10/11, Linux, macOS, and others
* Mostly NVMe SSDs, M.2 drives, large HDDs
* When Secure Boot is used
* On systems where UEFI is enabled
---
### **What Is a File System?**
A file system is the structure that determines how data (files and folders) will be stored and managed in a computer's memory.
In other words, the file system defines how data is organized and located on disks, SSDs, USB flash drives, and other storage devices.
Without a file system, a computer cannot manage data effectively because:
* It wouldn't know where to write data,
* It wouldn't be able to find where information is located,
* It would be impossible to delete, copy, or update files.
---
### **Basic Functions of a File System:**
---
#### **Organization of data:**
* The file system organizes files and folders neatly on the disk.
* It assigns names to files and gives them a unique address.
---
#### **Accessing and locating data:**
* The file system ensures fast and accurate data retrieval during read and write operations.
* It keeps information (an index) about where files and folders are located.
---
#### **Management of disk usage:**
* It tracks empty and used space on the disk.
* It determines which area will be used when a file is added.
---
#### **Security and permission management:**
* Modern file systems can specify who is allowed to read, write, or delete files (for example, in NTFS).
---
#### **Data protection:**
* Some file systems (for example NTFS) contain a journaling system, allowing data recovery in case of disk errors.
---
### **Types of File Systems:**
File systems can be of different types, each with its own advantages and limitations. For example:
* **FAT32:** Old but universally compatible; ideal for small files.
* **exFAT:** Improved version of FAT32, supports large files.
* **NTFS:** Suitable for modern Windows systems, with security and large file management.
* **ext4:** Commonly used in Linux operating systems.
* **HFS+:** File system for Apple macOS.
* **APFS:** New file system for Apple macOS and iOS.
---
### **Simple Explanation:**
---
### **The file system works like a library on the disk:**
In a library, every book has its own shelf, category, and registry.
The file system, on the other hand, shows where each file is located, how it is named, and who can use it on the computer.
---
### **What Is FAT32 (File Allocation Table 32-bit)?**
FAT32 (File Allocation Table 32-bit) is one of the oldest and most widely used file systems. This file system, used in DOS and earlier versions of Windows, is still used today for devices that require high compatibility.
The main features of the FAT32 file system are:
* The maximum size of a single file is 4 GB, meaning one file cannot be larger than 4 GB.
* The maximum partition size is theoretically 16 TB, but in practice it is limited to 2 TB.
This limitation exists because standard formatting tools and operating systems support only 2 TB partitions for FAT32.
One of the biggest advantages of FAT32 is that it is fully supported by all operating systems. All major operating systems such as Windows, macOS, and Linux can read and write the FAT32 file system. It also provides high compatibility between devices. Game consoles, cameras, camcorders, televisions, car multimedia systems, and USB flash drives fully support the FAT32 file system.
One of the important limitations of FAT32 is the maximum single file size of 4 GB. This means files larger than 4 GB cannot be saved on a FAT32 partition, which causes issues especially when storing large video files. Additionally, the FAT32 file system leads to more fragmentation on the disk. Fragmentation means that files are stored in parts instead of sequentially, which reduces disk performance.
The FAT32 file system does not support security features. Assigning permissions to files, managing user rights, or journaling systems such as data protection mechanisms are not available. Also, approximately 12 MB of fixed space is required for every FAT32 partition, which leads to space loss especially on low-capacity devices.
In conclusion, the FAT32 file system is mainly used in situations where compatibility is the priority. It is an ideal choice for storing files smaller than 4 GB, transferring data between different devices, and ensuring compatibility with older systems. However, for storing files larger than 4 GB, requiring security features, or effectively managing large disk capacities, FAT32 is not suitable due to its limitations. In such cases, NTFS, exFAT, or other modern file systems should be preferred.
---
### **What Is exFAT (Extended File Allocation Table)?**
The exFAT file system is an improved version of the FAT32 file system. It was developed specifically to remove the 4 GB maximum single file size limitation found in FAT32.
The main features of the exFAT file system:
* Maximum single file size: 16 exabytes (16 EB)
* Maximum partition size: 128 petabytes (128 PB)
These sizes are more than sufficient for practical use, and it is impossible to reach these limits in real-world scenarios. The exFAT file system is specifically designed for flash memory devices, USB drives, SD cards, and other external storage devices.
Advantages of the exFAT file system:
* Unlike FAT32, it does not limit a single file size to 4 GB, making it suitable for storing large files.
* Fully supported by Windows and macOS operating systems.
* Compatible with the characteristics of flash memory devices and works efficiently on them.
Limitations of the exFAT file system:
* It does not have advanced security features found in the NTFS file system.
* It does not support assigning detailed permissions to files and folders, managing user rights, granting special permissions, or audit mechanisms.
* There is no journaling system; therefore, there is no data recovery mechanism in case of disk errors or improper shutdowns.
In conclusion, the exFAT file system is used for storing large files on flash memory devices and ensuring compatibility across different platforms.
Its removal of the FAT32 file size limitation is its biggest advantage. However, due to the lack of security features, exFAT is not suitable for system drives or high-security environments.
This file system is particularly suitable for storing large media files, such as high-quality video files, on USB drives or external storage devices.
---
## **What Is NTFS (New Technology File System)?**
NTFS (New Technology File System) is a modern file system developed based on Windows NT.
Its main features:
* Maximum file size is 16 exabytes (16 EB)
* Maximum partition size is 256 terabytes (256 TB)
* Supports file permissions, encryption, journaling, and other advanced features
Advantages:
* Thanks to the NTFS file security and permission system, detailed access rights can be managed for each file and folder.
* File encryption is supported, and only authorized users can access encrypted files.
* The journaling system minimizes data loss during disk errors, improper shutdowns, or system crashes, and helps with data recovery.
* It can efficiently manage large files and large-volume partitions.
Limitations:
* NTFS does not have universal compatibility like other file systems.
* On macOS, NTFS partitions are supported only in read mode; third-party software is required for writing.
* On Linux systems, additional software may be required for full NTFS support.
For this reason, NTFS is generally suitable for systems operating within the Windows environment.
The NTFS file system is especially ideal for computer servers, workstations, and environments that require high security. Its security features, journaling system, and ability to manage large amounts of data make this file system one of the most widely used file systems in modern computer systems.
The information provided fully and accurately explains the features of the NTFS file system. The maximum file size is specified as 16 exabytes, which does not pose any limitation for practical use. Other features — security mechanisms, journaling system, and compatibility limitations — are presented completely and correctly.
| Feature | FAT32 | exFAT | NTFS |
| ---------------------- | --------------------------------------------------- | ----------------------------------- | ----------------------------------------------------- |
| Maximum file size | 4 GB | 16 EB | 16 EB |
| Maximum partition size | Practically 2 TB, theoretically 16 TB | 128 PB | 256 TB |
| Compatibility | Windows, macOS, Linux, game consoles, cameras, etc. | Windows, macOS | Mostly Windows (macOS read-only) |
| Security | None | None | File/folder permissions, encryption |
| Journaling system | None | None | Yes (for disk errors) |
| Fragmentation | Simple, high fragmentation | Simple, high fragmentation | Advanced, low fragmentation |
| Primary use case | Small devices, high compatibility | Storing large files on flash drives | System disks, servers, security-critical environments |
---
## **What Is Regedit?**
The Registry — is the central database of the Windows operating system that stores all configuration data (program settings, hardware configuration, user parameters, system policies, etc.). Physically, it consists of several files (SYSTEM, SOFTWARE, SAM, NTUSER.DAT, etc.), but it appears as a single structure to the user.
Regedit.exe (Registry Editor) — is the official tool developed by Microsoft. With it, it is possible to view the Registry, perform searches, modify values, create/delete keys, and import/export (.reg files).
In addition to Regedit, there used to be a more powerful regedt32.exe (in older versions of Windows), but since Windows XP, regedit itself supports permissions and other functions, so regedit is mostly used today.
Extreme caution must be exercised when working with the Registry — deleting or modifying the wrong value can render the system unusable (it may fail to boot).
Besides that, Regedit is also used to bypass or circumvent official requirements of many software applications. Additionally, some users install Windows 11 by bypassing requirements such as TPM 2.0, 8th-generation or newer CPUs, and Secure Boot using Regedit during installation.
Some users have attempted to make Windows 10 Home/Pro appear as "Enterprise" or "EnterpriseS" (such as IoT Enterprise LTSC) by modifying the registry, in order to continue receiving updates after 2025.
Regedit is indeed a very powerful tool and is widely used to bypass system limitations, but Microsoft increasingly aims to block these methods.
## **What Is the Registry — Basic Concepts**
The Registry is Windows' "settings library." It stores:
* System configurations (services, drivers, boot parameters),
* Settings of installed programs,
* User profiles and user-specific settings,
* Certain configuration parameters related to system hardware.
The Registry is made up of large blocks called **hives**. The main hives are:
* **HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE (HKLM)** — system-level settings (for everyone),
* **HKEY_CURRENT_USER (HKCU)** — settings of the current user,
* **HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT (HKCR)** — information about file types and COM objects,
* **HKEY_USERS (HKU)** — all user profiles,
* **HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG (HKCC)** — configuration of the current hardware.
Information in the Registry is stored as **keys** and **values**. Keys are similar to folders, and values are the individual parameters within those folders.
---
## **Basic Components of Regedit (with GUI)**
The main areas visible when Regedit is opened:
* **Left panel** — the tree structure of hives and keys (locations: HKLM, HKCU, etc.).
* **Right panel** — the values inside the selected key (name, type, value).
* **Menu and context menus** — creating new keys/values, export, import, permissions, etc.
* **Status bar / address bar** — displaying the current path.
---
## **Registry Value Types (most commonly used)**
* **REG_SZ** — text string
* **REG_EXPAND_SZ** — expandable text (may contain variables)
* **REG_DWORD** — 32-bit number (commonly used for settings)
* **REG_QWORD** — 64-bit number
* **REG_MULTI_SZ** — multiple text strings (list)
* **REG_BINARY** — binary data (raw data)
---
## **Practical Use Cases of Regedit**
* **Adjusting system behavior:**
Appearance and behavior of Windows components (Explorer, Taskbar, etc.)
Additional parameters regarding the operation mode of automatic services
* **Modifying program settings:**
Changing program configurations (if the program stores them in the registry)
* **Troubleshooting (fixing errors):**
Manually correcting corrupted or incorrect parameters (if the GUI does not allow it)
* **System policies and security:**
Adjusting parameters such as UAC, encryption, login restrictions, BitLocker, etc.
* **Diagnosing hardware and driver issues:**
Checking certain driver parameters (during installation or compatibility problems)
Modifying installation restrictions (e.g., incompatibility checks)
*Note:* This section is risky — bypassing some checks may endanger system security.
---
## **What Cannot Be Done with Regedit / Risks**
* **System failing to boot:**
Deleting or modifying the wrong value or key can cause Windows to fail to start, break drivers, or corrupt programs.
* **Security risk:**
Some changes may weaken the system or leave open vulnerabilities.
* **Data loss:**
Making changes without taking a backup is risky.
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## **Useful Technical Points (Administration and Automation)**
* **.reg file format:**
Used for exporting/importing Registry changes. These files contain key and value structures as text.
* **Import/Export:**
Keys can be exported from Regedit and re-imported to another computer or restored in case of issues.
* **Permissions:**
Each key has Windows ACL (permission policy) — determines who can read, write, or delete.
* **Scripting/Automation:**
Registry operations can be automated with PowerShell or other system tools (outside the GUI, safer and reversible).
* **Audit and Event Logging:**
In enterprise environments, registry changes can be monitored and audited.
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## **Practical Examples (Conceptual — No Action Commands)**
* To modify a hidden setting of a program, the key stored by the vendor is located and its value is changed.
* To force a service to start automatically, the Run/Start parameters can be adjusted.
* To change Explorer's icon behavior, a parameter is added to the relevant key.
(*These examples are for conceptual purposes — a backup should be taken beforehand.*)
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## **Conclusion:**
Regedit is the official graphical tool for managing Windows' configuration database.
* It provides the ability to read and modify both system and program settings.
* When used correctly, it is a powerful diagnostic and repair tool; when used incorrectly, it can break the system or create security vulnerabilities.
* Backup, precaution, and attention are essential before every change.