The need for shelter has been one of the most fundamental requirements for every being since the beginning of time. For humans, this need went beyond survival into a desire not only to inhabit space, but to express identity, belief, and beauty through it.
Ancient architectures and their remains has been found all over the world, some of the oldest shelters dating back to 9600-7300 BCE, The Göbekli Tepe in Turkey or The Knap of Howar in Scotland dating back to 3600 BCE. What began as a practical craft soon evolved into an art form—allowing people to tell stories, record their beliefs, or create a communal identity. Architecture began to carry messages, and mirror the collective consciousness of the people.
Thus as civilizations evolved, the art of constructing structures was no longer just a need; it became a irreplaceable cultural and spiritual part of the society, for both the nobles and commoners.
These sculptures or architecture were not mere decorations, instead, they carried the essence of the creator's soul—a spiritual image.
As Dr. Rabindranath Tagore once said, "In art, man reveals himself and not his object," which, in turn, is inevitably true, as every creation reflects the state of its creator's soul—his emotions. This can clearly be observed in the traditional Indian architecture, especially temples. These ancient structures, standing sturdy for hundreds of years, are more than just buildings; they are the symbol of the devotion, and inner spirit of their makers. Their refined designs and forms reflect not only the level of craftsmanship but also the soul and emotions poured in their making.
Throughout the years, Indian architecture experienced various changes under the influence of various philosophies and cultural exchanges, often caused as a result of invasions. But the one thing that remained consistent was the architecture behind Indian temples. Rooted in Shilpa Shastras; a collection of ancient Indian texts about science of arts and crafts, that encompasses a wide range of texts; and built upon the principles of Vastu Shastra, these temples serve not just as places of worship but as reflections of the cosmic universe.
This chapter shall discuss the treatises of Vastu Shastra along with Shilpa Shastra; and other sources available, while trying to understand the spiritual aspect behind their creation.
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Temples hold a very important significance in Indian, especially Hindu, religious faiths. Unlike the places of worships in other beliefs, the believers are not obligated to worship or visit to the temples. Although, many devotees do visit regularly, they do it out of their heart's content, devotion and for the experience of peace and the pristine divine.
Throughout the Indian subcontinent, a large number of temples, boasting unique and intricate architecture, can be witnessed. In modern India however, the temple architecture is generally classified into two main styles: Nagara and Dravidian.
Temples built to the north of the Deccan were built based on the Nagara style architecture, while those in the south shows the Dravidian style architecture in all its glory. Apart from these two architectural styles, there are temples constructed on other styles. Such as the ancient temples of the Deccan region, represents Vesara style, a unique blend of Nagara and Dravidian architecture tradition; or the temples in Nepal that are built with Nagara style and influence of Pagoda style architecture.
Among all these, the oldest surviving temple is the Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Temple, which was built according to the Dravidian tradition and has inscriptions dating around 100 BCE to 100 CE.
There are a number of Dravidian temples that dates back to as far as 5th century CE and are still intact. In contrast, very few of the early Nagara style temples remain. The oldest Nagara temple is The Dashavatara Temple, located in Uttar Pradesh , it was built in the early 6th century. Most of the temples from North India that were built in ancient times, now lie in ruins, and those which still stand tall have lost their original forms due to reconstruction.
But this doesn't imply that the Nagara architecture was inferior or that its craftsmen lacked skills. The main reason is rather something more dire. Due to the geographical position, the North suffered a number of invasions from the foreign forces. Over the years, the North, which was in constant struggle against the invasions, began to lose its roots. One that had affected it the most were the invasion of Somnath by Mahmud of Ghazni and the continuous cultural transformations during the Mughal Empire.
Despite the architectural (Vastu-Shilpa) differences between the Nagara and Dravidian styles, both are deeply rooted in the same philosophical and spiritual beliefs. Their foundations mainly lie in Vāstu Shastra as well as Shilpa Shastra. These knowledge systems do not merely state how a structure should be constructed, instead it thoroughly explains why it should be built that way. Whether it is the towering shikharas of the Nagara temples or the grandeur of gopurams in the Dravidian shrines, both forms follow principles prescribed in Vāstu and Shilpa texts that align human-built spaces with cosmic order.
It is through these ancient treatises that the temple becomes more than just a place of worship. It becomes a mandala, a spiritual diagram that channels energy, balances the five elements, and cosmic energies. To understand the essence of Indian temple architecture, therefore, one must understand the Vāstu Shastra, and the Shilpa Shastra.
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Vāstu Shastra:
Vastu Shastra or Vāstu Śāstra (lit. Science of Architecture) is the traditional Indian system of architecture based on ancient texts that describe principles of design, layout, measurements and other architecture related features. Vastu Shastra is often mentioned in the vedas, especially Atharva-veda, as well as in puranas, such as the Agni Purana.
Other than the physical aspects of construction, Vastu Shastra also emphasizes the belief that design and placement of a structure impacts the flow of energy in it. Vastu Shastra and its principles seek to create a harmonious place for cosmic energy along with the elemental energies, known as Pancha Mahabhuta. Each element is associated with a specific direction: Bhūmi(Earth) symbolizes stability and corresponds to the southwest; Āpah(Water) represents purity and flow of energy, is associated with the northeast; Agni(Fire) which signifies energy and transformation, is associated to the southeast; Vāyu(Air) is associated with movement and is linked to the northwest; and Ākāśa(Space) embodies openness and occupies the central area.
In ancient texts, each direction is said to be governed by specific Gods and carries unique energies. For example, the East direction is associated with Surya (Sun), which symbolizes enlightenment, and life, as a result ancient temples are often east-facing.
Another story from Vishwakarma Prakash, an ancient text about Vastu, speaks of the Vāstu Purusha, a cosmic giant that emerged from the sweat of Lord Shiva. It threatened to destroy and consume the world, as a result Gods pinned him down on a mandala, the Vāstu Purusha Mandala. The Vāstu Purusha—lying with his head in the northeast and feet in the southwest, symbolizes the ordered cosmos and is believed to protect the building and its inhabitants. Vāstu Purusha highly reflects the belief of universe and the physical body being the same, as stated in Yajurveda:
"यथा ब्रह्माण्डे तथा पिंडे II यथा पिंडे तथा ब्रह्माण्डे "
which means, "As is the universe, so is the physical body. As is the physical body, so is the universe"
The Vāstu Purusha Mandala is divided into a grid, typically 64 (8x8) or 81 (9x9) squares, each governed by specific deities and elements. Some specific points within the body of Vastu Purusha, where life energy, or prana, is concentrated are called Marmsthana (lit. Vital Place)
In temple architecture, the Vāstu Purusha Mandala guides the placement of various components, ensuring that the structure resonates with cosmic energies and the vibration/rhythm. The central square and the holiest place of the temple is known as "Brahmasthan" , which often houses the Garbhagriha (lit. Womb chamber) or the sanctum sanctorum.
The treatises of Vastu Shastra provides detailed teaching for construction. This isn't limited to just the design or laying bricks, rather the steps such as: design, layout, measurements, ground preparation, space arrangement, spatial geometry, positioning of doors and even windows, for spiritual harmony.
These principles are not limited to only temples but can be applied for residential buildings, cities, gardens, and even furniture design, although the mandala types might change depending on the application.
Shilpa Shastra: The soul of Vastu
If music is the soul of dance, then Shilpa is the soul of Vastu. While Vāstu Shastra focuses on the spatial and structural aspects of architecture, Shilpa Shastra focuses more onto the aesthetic and symbolic aspects. Similar to Vastu Shastra, Shilpa Shastra isn't just a single text, instead it encompasses many texts, such as Manasara, Vishnudharmottara Purana, Bimbamana, Matsya purana, etc.
Shilpa Shastra (lit. Science of arts and crafts) encompasses the teachings of a number of arts and crafts, including dance, music, architecture, and even kissing, embracing. There are a total of one hundred twenty-eight of such arts that are traditionally enumerated. Out of these, sixty-four are known as "Bāhya-kalā" or external arts. These are the arts that can be performed in open, to make a living or for entertainment, such as carpentry, architecture, jewellery, acting, dancing, music, medicine, poetry etc.
Aside from these, rest sixty-four arts are known as "Abhyantara-kalā" or secret arts, which were mainly performed in private by the courtesans or between two lovers. These arts are: kiss, embrace, talking, flirting and arts such as philosophy, ayurveda etc. In ancient times, these "secret arts" were not seen as vulgar or taboo, but rather seen as important aspects of emotional, intellectual, and personal development.
Shilpa shastra is also deeply intertwined with Hindu religious and philosophical thought. It provides the principles for the creation of divine icons (mūrtis) with precise proportions, mudras, and facial expressions. These principles ensure that each sculpture embodies the essence of the deity it represents, serving as a medium for spiritual connection.
On the other hand, in temple architecture, Shilpa Shastra provides detailed instructions for the design and ornamentation of various components.
The Garbhagriha (cosmic womb) is the innermost chamber where the main deity resides. It also represents the spiritual core and Brahmasthan. Above it rises the Vimānaor Shikhara, a towering structure that represents Mount Meru, which is believed to be the center of the universe and the adobe of the deities. Although, this mount is symbolic rather than physical, it signifies the soul's ascent towards spirituality and the top of the Vimāna or Shikhara symbolizes the Sahasrara chakra that located at the top of head. This and mount Meru being the adobe of Gods, emphasizes the belief of God being within.
The Maṇḍapa, a pillared hall, serves as a space for devotional worship, rituals, and cultural gatherings. Lastly, the Prākāra is the enclosure wall that defines the sacred boundary, offering both protection and spiritual separation from the mundane world.
These texts serve as manuals for artists and architects, ensuring that their creations resonate with spiritual significance and aesthetic excellence.
Conclusion:
When viewed through the perspective of Vastu and Shilpa Shastras, Indian temple architecture goes beyond its physical form to become a spiritual journey. Each temple is thoughtfully constructed not just to provide shelter or display grandeur, but to lead devotees from the mundane world toward a deeper connection with the divine.
The temple's layout, instructed by Vastu Shastra, guides the flow of energy, within the temple. Within the Garbhagriha, the influence of Shilpa Shastra is evident in the carefully crafted icons, detailed carvings, and symbolic forms that do more than decorate—they narrate cosmic stories and express the eternal spiritual truths.
This harmonious integration of space, form, and symbolism creates an environment where art becomes a medium of spiritual awakening. The temple stands not merely as a place of worship but as a living testament to a civilization that viewed the art of creation as an act of devotion and spiritual expression.
In this blending of art and spirituality, temple architecture serves as a bridge between the human and the divine, inviting everyone who enters to embark on an inner journey toward self-realization, peace, and harmony with the greater universe.